Boston Beer Company Case Essay

Background Information_: The Boston Beer Company, which was founded in 1984, had a very diversified thriving product line which entailed about twenty different kinds of beers. Their product was available in over nineteen various countries and used a network of around four hundred distributors. Revenues grew from 21 million dollars to 210 million dollars from inception to 1997. _Problem and Opportunity Identification_: As a result of the company’s product line and its variety, the company encountered issues sustaining and upholding of their products such as Lightship – which has been withering in recent years and which doesn’t have the volume like other products to sustain distribution. Since the light beer business that Lightship belonged to was one that was rapidly growing, the Boston Beer Company felt the need to investigate its products disappointment. The research to do so took place in different forms such as competition, market, and financial analyses, customer surveys, and finally deep emotional analysis using the ZMET technique. _Alternatives_: One option the research team is considering is introducing a new light beer into their product line. It is understandable that since the high-priced light beer industry is one of the biggest and rapidly growing field in the beer industry, the Boston Beer Company wants to occupy and take advantage of this field to further enhance its name and maintain its market share and its standing. However, there are issues in terms of positioning and marketing of this product. The product needs to be communicated as a light, rich, fun beer and targeted at a different audience that entails women. In addition to the fact that this option might cause conflict in terms of the brand image being a macho rough beer brewer, using it doesn’t solve the problem for Lightship if Lightship is going to be kept in the market offerings. Another option the research team considered was repositioning Lightship and throwing in more effort and investment into the marketing of the product. It was obvious that, compared to one of their biggest competitors Heineken, the Boston Beer Company has had trouble and sort-of failed to build a unique brand identity for this product. The product was not successfully differentiated and positioned in the market in order for it to build market share and improve standings. This failure could make it difficult for the company to reposition itself and change consumer perceptions to gain their interests and so it might be a waste of time and efforts. Finally, the last option is the dreaded one of not competing in this realm of the industry. This is a very extreme option since this realm is a huge and growing segment of the market and they would be missing out on a lot if they decide to pull out it. The failure to fit into this field, however, might have proved that the Boston Beer Company is not competent enough and ready to compete in this segment. _Critical Issues_: There are two main critical issues that the company should consider when making the decision about their situation in the light beer industry. One critical issue concerns the brand image – the company has an umbrella brand image of being a premium masculine macho craft beer brewer and shaking that could be seen to influence consumer perceptions. The second critical issue relates to the field study and the results it yielded – do they answer our questions about how to position the light beer product or on whether we should even introduce/keep products in this segment of the market. _Conclusion and Recommendation_: After reviewing the results of the various research techniques, the recommended option would be to introduce a new high-end light beer into the market (while probably retiring Lightship). Making use of the ZMET research results, this new product should be positioned in a manner that represents an active, refreshing, and healthy lifestyle. Having a new product instead of improving Lightship is best in order to avoid the difficult efforts of having to change stubborn consumer perceptions. Also, in terms of the umbrella brand image of BBC being a macho tough image, having a separate offering targeted at other audiences will probably add to the image of having two instead of eroding the existing image.

Modernism in poetry Essay

Modernism. It is a direction of poetry, literature and art in general that uses and describes â€Å"new and distinctive features in the subjects, forms, concepts and styles of literature and the other arts in the early decades of the present century, but especially after World War I. † (Abrams 167) More often than not â€Å"Modernism† engages in â€Å"deliberate and radical break† (Abrams 167) with more traditional foundation of art and culture, established since XIX century. Here two poets of modernist age – T. S. Elliot and H. Crane – are compared to T. Hardy and G. M. Hopkins, a pair of contemporary classical poets. I’d like to begin the study with T. S. Elliot, the famous poet whose very name sounds like a synonym to word â€Å"modernism†. Elliot was and is the personification of modernism, and images and verses from his poems are remembered even today, and integrated in today works of literature and fiction. One can remember Steven King’s â€Å"Dark Tower† saga where images of Elliot’s works resurface frequently – in fact, one of King’s volumes of that saga is called â€Å"The Waste Lands†, obviously inspired by Elliot’s . For example, Elliot’s â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† had brought us a vision of a man whose world had split in and around himself, a lost person in search of love which can only be destructive and formidable for him. Since he is confined in the abyss of his own consciousness, reality is merely some kind of emotional experience for him. He can still observe the world around him, but psychologically he is alone, in the waste lands of unfertility and spiritual emptiness. Prufrock (the epitome of Elliot himself, or the reader) lets his thoughts and sentiments drift off incoherently. The external world around him, to which he is so sardonic, reflects his inner world, deprived of spiritual serenity. As he cannot get involved in a dialogue with the external world, only through the dramatic monologue can Prufrock whisper his intention : â€Å"Let us go then, you and I† (Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, 242). Elliot wanted his hero (and the reader) to compare himself with a character of Dante’s â€Å"Inferno†. But while they are alike, their fates are different: While Guido has at least the courage to open up to Dante, Prufrock is too complacent and too inert to make that effort. His only confident can be his alter ego – a distorted reflection of himself in the mirror of outside world. He sees this person, and begs to him for unification – as if there can be an answer different from the one he gives himself†¦ Prufrock’s wisdom of the ages he seems to feel returns to him as cruel mockery. What, indeed, could be the meaning of â€Å"life, universe and everything† (D. Adams), if .. one, settling a pillow, or throwing off a shawl, And turning toward the window, should say: â€Å"That is not it at all, That is not what I meant, at all. † (Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, 245). That Prufrock’s mawkish and evasive nature is shattered is delineated in the last ten lines of the poem. As the recurrent images of and references to the sea (â€Å"silent seas†, â€Å"mermaids†, â€Å"seagirls†) crop up more and more, Prufrock’s self-evasion becomes more marked. His psychic para1yis culminates when he realizes that even the mermaids will not do him a favor by singing to him; thus, all his source of possible inspiration fades away. (Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, 245). He has never rea1ly been a religious man: he cannot, thus, expect Christ to restore him to a potent life, as was Lazarus restored to his. It is no wonder that while Prufrock is felt to be an epitome to all society of his times – so brilliant and so exquisitely empty inside. In modern times, his words had been referenced to in mockery by one of the most horrible machines the human mind had ever invented, Blaine the Mono: â€Å"In the rooms the people come and go. But I doubt that any of them is talking of Michelangelo† (King). Elliot’s other masterpiece, Gerontion, depicts a dream of memory. While Prufrock is at least â€Å"here† (even if he is unsure of his own location in the world), Gerontion’s hero is the time itself, sifted through the sieve of human memory. The observer is neither here not there, but the remains of memory, the dregs of time are spread before him – an enchanting display, but meaningless essentially. Elliot seems to ask – would the dregs of our own memory, if spread before some stranger, mean as little to him as these remains of one’s time mean to us now? All Elliot’s images are dark, broody and disturbing. They imply to ask – is it all? Can there be anything else around us, or are we lost eternally in the world which wasn’t mean for us? And, as Elliot hadn’t answered that questions himself, each reader must substitute his own answers and test their validity on Elliot’s words of man, world and time. Hart Crane is other example of modernist poets, his images are less brooding than Elliot’s and more defined, but the power they wield over us is intensified by their hidden meanings, unseen at first glance. Crane’s â€Å"Black Tambourineâ€Å" reflects on author’s own experience of time spent with some negro workers in a cellar. But the cellar expands in author’s view to the size of the whole world, and its closed door becomes the famous wall of the three Biblical judgments – MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN: â€Å"numbered, weighed and found wanting†. All universe seems to be contained between â€Å"here and now† – the dark cellar with tambourine on the wall – and mystical â€Å"somewhere†, where all human hopes end as â€Å"carcass, quick with flies† (Black Tambourine). â€Å"At Melville’s Tomb† brings dark and melancholy beneath which a memory of forces lingers that were bright and vicious once before – before the Death took its toll, equaling the furious Ahab and unnamed sailor. The image of the sea is indefinite and vague too, for it can be perceived as deep grave, or Death itself, or Sea of Time which will eventually give endless calm to every living being. In all modernist poetry, the concept of such multipart images and veiled references was honed and detailed up to its perfection. Now this is an instrument which is frequently used in literature and other spheres of life, such as advertising, but in times of T. S. Elliot and H. Crane it was a powerful innovation with which readers were stunned literarily. To compare with modernist poetry of Elliot and Crane, classical works by T. Hardy and G. M. Hopkins are selected. The classical English poetry of Thomas Hardy is more structured both in rhythm and meaning than modernist examples of Elliot and Crane. His poetry can be called â€Å"methodic†, for he explains methodically the one symbol which forms a poem. He explains it, details it, brings it before our eyes in maddeningly realistic manner, until the reader not simply understands it, but is enthralled by its vision. â€Å"Neutral tones† brings us a vision of lost love which turned into deadliness – the blank neutrality which opposes love and joy and happiness of life. The feelings deepen further with each stanza – from tranquility to blankness, to melancholy, and finally to utter despair. The concluding stanza forms the moral of the poem, adding to the finality of the sentence – what is lost in time, can never be found again. â€Å"The Darkling Thrush† is an example of more hopeful vision. Dedicated to the coming century, it is full with dark images of definite meaning: the gate as the gate of a new age (or a new Century), frost and Winter as Death itself that comes to all, and the land becomes a body which dies together with Century, for its time has passed. But the mere voice of the thrush changes the picture, illuminating it with some inner light of â€Å"blessed Hope†. And, while the reader (as the man who stands at the gates) is yet unaware of a definite knowledge of that Good Sign that only the bird has, he still accepts the bird’s song as a sign that there is hope for the future. Poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins is yet another example of what classics had to offer then. His images are as definite as Hardy’s, if somewhat more fluent, and the moral is present too in his poems. â€Å"Spring and Fall† shows Margaret – a young girl who had realized for the first time that all things in life change and eventually die, that life is not permanent. A child’s mind can grasp concepts at levels they are not aware of, and understand something without ever having it explained. It is simple because of the innocent way the child absorbs the life itself. As an adult, one can see a subject or idea in a completely different way by viewing it through the eyes of a child. In the poem, Margaret looks at death and understands it symbolically, through the death of leaves to her own imminent demise. â€Å"God’s Grandeur† is another example of short and conclusive classical poetry. The tension in scenes of man-made destruction, pictured with vivid detail, is intensified by alliteration. Disturbing images of oozing oil and ever-repeating trod of countless generations result in deep, uncontrolled fear. But the conclusion opposes all said before by references to never-ending nature and God as its creator and protector. It states to us that God will as surely brings life after death and resurrection after destruction, as each day he brings the morning light after the dark of night. From fear of Man to hope in God – that is the meaning of the poem in general. To conclude the work, one should remind that modernist poets had learned to use their images from classical poetry. But, taking the basic elements and images from their predecessors, their works had transcended from single pictures (or contented stories explained to reader part by part) to grandiose intertwined canvases, full of elements and colors, or bottomless abysses of veiled hints and allusions. Certainly, the works of classics had formed the foundation for these magnificent creations of modernist poets, and without them the whole modernism in English literature would not be able to exist or progress. Works Cited Abrams M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson, 1941 Hardy, Thomas. Wessex poems and other verses. New York: Harper, 1898. Hopkins, Gerard Manley. Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins. London: Humphrey Milford, 1918. King, Stephen. The Waste Lands. Donald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc, 1991. Simon, Marc. The Complete Poems of Hart Crane. New York: Liveright, 1986. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry. New York and London:W. W. Norton & Company, 1988

Prevalence of Escherichia Coli on Money

PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ON PHILIPPINE PESO BILL WITHIN THE VICINITY OF ILOILO CITY 2012-2013 A Research Paper Presented to The Faculty College of Medical Laboratory Science Department Central Philippine University Iloilo City In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Research 1 JUSTINE GRACE G. JIMENEA ISAAC JAMES T. LEDESMA MAJA HANNAH LOU L. LOJA ROBERTO R. MANALO JR. JIRAH L. PEDROSA MARCH 2013 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study A classic characteristic of human parasitic and bacterial agents is the evolution of routes for transmission pathogens to susceptible hosts.The environment plays a critical role in transmission to humans, with many environmental materials serving as vehicles. Microbial contaminants may be transmitted directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects like fomites. (Rote, et al. , 2010) According to Umeh, et al (2007), Contamination of objects by pathogenic microorganism is much a public hea lth concern as contaminated materials can be sources of transmitting pathogens. Items that pass from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease causing microorganisms especially if handled with unclean hands or kept in dirty surroundings.Ahmed, et al (2010) pointed out that paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in most countries worldwide. Paper currencies are widely used and each currency is exchanged many times during the time it circulates. If some of these paper money are contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, there is a potential to spread these microorganism. Pope, et al (2002) mentioned, since bacteria, have been shown to spread from person to person via contact with fomites paper money, therefore, presents a particular risk of public health.Paper currency is commonly and routinely passed among individuals. Thus bacteria could be spread on the surface of paper currency. Paper currency, as asserted by Oyero, et al (2007) can be contaminated by droplets during coughing, sneezing, touching with previously contaminated hands or other materials and placement on dirty surface. Paper currency is commonly handled by various categories of people during transaction. The possibility that paper currency might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in 1970s.Various pathogens related with throat infection, pneumonia, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, urino-genital tract infection, gastroenteritis and lung abscess had been reported. (Pope, et al. , 2002) The money which may get contaminated during production, storage, after production and during use are always in circulation. Numerous research on currency in several countries indicated bacterial contamination. A study in Bangladesh reported thatEscherichia coli (58%),Klebsiella(50%), Staphylococcus aureus(25%), Salmonella (15%), Bacillus (9%), Pseudomonas (7%) and Vibrio cholera (5%) were recovered from Bangladesh Paper Currenc y Notes (Taka). Ahmed, et al,. 2010) In another study carried out in Nigeria, the bacteria isolated E. coli (80%), Aerobacter (59%), Salmonella (40. 9%), yeast cells (36. 4%), Streptococcus fecalis(31. 8%), Staphylococcus aureus( 27. 3%) and the coagulase negative staphylococci (18. 2%). (Umeh, et al. , 2007) A similar study was also conducted in Nepal and reported thatStaphylococcusaureus, S. Epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella choleraesius, E. coli, Enterobacteraerogenesand cloaceaewere isolated from paper money of Nepal. (Lamichhane, et al. 2009) In another study in India, 100% of the currency notes of Indian upee were contaminated with bacteria. Mainly three species including E. coli, Proteus spp. And Staphylococcus aureuswere isolated. (Bhat, et al. , 2010) In another study in India, currency samples of different denominations from different occupational groups were evaluated for isolation of microbial contaminants and Staphylococcus aureu, E. coli, Bacillus spp. , Klebsiella spp. , Proteus mirablisand fungus like Aspergillusnigerand Fusariumwere isolated from these paper currency notes. (Rote, et al. 2010) Although, a lot of studies on the microbiological status of paper currency have been carried out elsewhere, data on the microbial contamination of the Peso (Philippine currency) is scanty. In order to know the prevalence of Escherichia coli on Philippine Peso bill within the vicinity of Iloilo City in the year 2012-2013, this study is to be conducted. General Objectives What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the Philippine peso bill of Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ)? Specific Objectives 1. ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 20 peso bill? . ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 50 peso bill? 3. ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 100 peso bill? Research Paradigm Independent variableDependent variable Location:Public Utility Jeepn ey (PUJ)Value:20 PHP50 PHP100 PHP| Prevalence rate of Escherichia coli contamination| Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study Definition of Terms To provide clarity and understanding, the following terms were defined conceptually and operationally. Bacteria- are minute, unicellular organisms that reproduce by binary fission.They are considered prokaryotes due to the absence of nuclear membrane. They possess both DNA and RNA. They sensitive to penicillins, tetracycline and chloramphenicol. (Moraleta, Review of Microbiology) In the study, the bacteria is the E. coli to be identified. Escherichia coli- or E. coli is a bacterium that is commonly found in the gut of humans and other warm-blooded animals. While most strains are harmless, some can cause severe foodborne disease. E. coli  infection is usually transmitted through consumption of contaminated water or food, such as undercooked meat products and raw milk.Symptoms of disease include abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, which may b e bloody. Fever and vomiting may also occur. Most patients recover within 10 days, although in a few cases the disease may become life-threatening. (WHO, 2012) As used in this study,E. coli is the subject of the study and it is isolated in the surfaces different peso bill. Contamination-The act or process of  contaminating; pollution; defilement; taint; also, that which contaminates. (http://www. merriam-webster. com/) In this study, contamination refers how high or low E. oli bacteria level is found on the surface of the peso bill. Denomination-a value or size of a series of values or sizes. (http://www. merriam-webster. com/) As used in thisstudy, 20, 50, 100 are used as denomination. Paper bill- (often known as a  bill,  paper money  or simply a  note) is a type ofnegotiable instrument  known as a  promissory note, made by a  bank, payable to the bearer on demand. (http://en. wikipedia. org) In this study, paper bill was tested for the presence or absence of E. co li. Philippine peso- is the currency of the  Philippines.The peso is usually denoted by the symbol â€Å"? â€Å". Other ways of writing the Philippine peso sign are â€Å"PHP†, â€Å"PhP†, â€Å"Php†, and/or â€Å"P†. (http://www. wikipedia. org/) As used in this study, Philippine peso paper bill was tested for the presence of E. coli. Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ)- are the most popular means of  public transportation  in the Philippines. (http://www. wikipedia. org/) In this study, this is the location of the Philippine peso billwhere the E. coli is to be isolated. Significance of the Study The result of the study will benefit the following:Department of Health. May provide information on how to properly handle and care for money to prevent the risk of Escherichia coli contamination from hand-to-hand communication. The Medical Researchers. They may use this study as reference for future studies especially in the prevention of the deadly disease c aused by Escherichia coli on the circulating money. Commercial Banks. They may have an idea that Escherichia coli can inhabit the paper bill and cause such disease. Hence, they will come up bacteria-free money. Jeepney Drivers.May help them in protecting their selves from being the courier of contaminated money from one person to another. The public. The result will provide information and awareness about money contaminated by Escherichia coli circulates, and find ways in preventing disease and reduce mortality. Future researcher. The result of the study may also be used by other future researcher as a reference or basis for future researcher or investigation. Scope and Limitation of the Study This study aims to determine the prevalence of Escherichia coli contamination on Philippine peso bill within the vicinity of Iloilo City.A total of 45 paper currency of denominations, fifteen paper currencies of each: 20 PhP, 50 PhP and 100 PhP in circulation were randomly collected in 15 jeep neys at different times. Coins were excluded from the study. Paper currencies were gathered from Jaro-CPU Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) from CPU to Iloilo City route and vice versa. This study is conducted during the month of March until May in the year 2013. Persons handling the bill were asked to deposit them in sterile polyethylene bags, sealed and taken to the Medical Laboratory Science Research Laboratory of Central Philippine University, for analysis. CHAPTER 2REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This chapter deals with the related literature and studies relevant to the study of Escherichia coli contamination on paper money bills. Money in the form of notes or coins is handled by everyone, and ‘dirty' money (money contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms) is always in circulation. Contamination may occur during production, during storage after production, and during use. Microorganisms on the skin can be transferred from cashiers, salespeople and the general public to the currency notes that they handle. Contamination from the anal region, wounds, nasal secretions and aerosols enerated by sneezing and coughing are potential sources of transfer of microorganisms to currency notes during handling. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa  and  Klebsiellaaerogenes  have been reported to survive well on the skin,and are known to be transferred from fabrics to hand as well as from hand to fabrics. (Tswana, 2000) Items that are passed from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease-causing bacteria particularly if carried with unclear hands, or kept in a dirty environment. Similarly, paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide.Currency contamination with pathogenic bacteria is of much public health concern as contaminated materials can be sources of serious pathogens. Paper currency, therefore presents a particular risk to public health, since they go in circulation and contaminate t he hands of others transmitting pathogenic organisms in the process. (Uneke&Ogbu, 2007) Pathogenic bacteria that may survive on the currency banknotes may serve as a potential source of enteropathogens causing food poisoning because food vendors handle and serve food and at the same time handle currency banknotes as they sell. Cardoenet al. , 2009; Lamichhaneet al. , 2009) The incidence of food poisoning is on the increase worldwide, although it is estimated that only 10% of cases are reported – just the tip of the iceberg. Money bill play a major role in transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Some mathematical models have been developed to help understand the movements of currency and how this might contribute to the global spread of disease. One of the main sources of pathogenic or food-poisoning bacteria is people. People commonly carry these bacteria in their nose, mouth, wounds and intestines, and on their skin.There are several reports of the occurrence of microorganisms, in particular bacteria, on cash – banknotes and coins. A study in the US showed that only 6% of banknotes tested were free from microbial contamination. Dirty money Modern banknotes are made from a special blend of 75% cotton and 25% linen with small segments of fibre, so ‘paper’ money is something of a misnomer. The ‘paper’ is referred to as the substrate during the manufacturing process; this is an appropriate name as bacteria require a substrate for growth.The cotton/linen/fibre combinations of banknotes produce a strong bond and do not pull apart, unlike the fibres of ordinary paper. The average life span of a low denomination paper banknote is about 24 months. In the early 1980s, an American Bank developed polyethylene fibres for use as currency and they are still in use in some Central American countries. Non-fibrous, non-porous, polymer banknotes, developed by the Reserve Bank of Australia, were first issued as currency in 1988. The banknotes were made from biaxially oriented polypropylene that made them more durable, with security features that rendered them difficult to counterfeit. Aidoo, 2011) Various routes are known that lead to the contamination of paper bill. Handling of it results in the transfer of bacteria from money onto hands or from hands onto money. Individuals who cough or sneeze into their hands can easily transfer bacteria onto currency when they handle it. Viruses may also be transmitted when infected people touch surfaces, such as banknotes, that are then touched by others. In the hospitality and catering industry, it is unacceptable for staff to use one hand to handle food and the other to handle money.Food, either cooked or uncooked, may contain bacteria which can be transferred either directly or indirectly through a medium such as a work surface onto currency. This may occur particularly with street food, mobile food vendors and in retail outlets at the counter. Obviously, the transfer of pathoge nic bacteria to food that is ready to be eaten and that requires no further heat treatment could have serious consequences. Should money be handled between hand washing and food handling, then it is equally important to repeat the process of hand washing before handling high-risk food.Wallets, purses, cash registers and other ‘closed’ environments are conducive for microbial growth because they create warm and moist conditions. Transfer of micro-organisms from one banknote to another in such closed environments may also be common. (Aidoo, 2011) Money on which pathogenic microorganisms might survive represents an often overlooked reservoir for enteric disease (Michaels, 2002). In most parts of the developed world, there is a popular belief that the simultaneous handling of food and money contributes to the incidence of food-related public health incidents (Food Science Australia [FSA], 2000).It goes without saying that bacteria are everywhere in the environment and most of these microbes are harmless to humans. Should germs on money worry us? Surprisingly, studies of bacteria on money are scarce. In 1972 a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association studied bacteria from 200 coins and bills and found harmful germs like fecal bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus on 13 percent of coins and 42 percent of notes. The study concluded: â€Å"Money is truly dirty. † (http://christophreilly. hubpages. com/) Micro-organisms commonly associated with banknotes include Staphylococcus aureus, ? haemolytic Streptococcus, Enterobacter spp. , Acinetobacter spp. , Pseudomonas spp. , Bacillusspp. , Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. , viruses, yeasts and moulds. Some of these bacteria are pathogenic, while others may cause opportunistic infections. The predominant, recurrent pathogenic bacteria found on banknotes are S. aureus, Bacillus spp. and Escherichia spp. Many members of the Enterobacteriaceae are found in the gut of animals and humans, and th eir presence in food or on inanimate objects and surfaces is a good indicator of poor hygiene.Members of the genera Enterobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella isolated from banknotes may not themselves cause serious illness; however, their isolation from money may indicate the presence of other pathogenic organisms. Escherichia coliis an important member of the faecal coliform group and its presence on banknotes is of public health concern, especially as some strains can of course cause serious illness. Species of the Gram-negative genus Pseudomonas, which can cause serious opportunistic infections, have also been isolated from banknotes.S. aureus is the predominant bacterium present on the surface of banknotes and it is also a common cause of food poisoning. This organism is indicative of poor standards of hygiene particularly during food handling and/or preparation. Many people in the adult population carry S. aureus on their skin, in their nasal cavity, and in septic cuts, boils an d spots. Coagulase-positive S. aureus is readily isolated from banknotes and the toxins it produces may cause toxic shock syndrome. It has also been implicated in pneumonia.Streptococci are part of the normal microflora in the mouth, skin, intestine and upper respiratory tract of humans. Although many streptococcal species are non-pathogenic, some have been implicated in meningitis and pneumonia. Bacillus spp. are spore-formers and can withstand harsh, adverse conditions, such as drying. Some species, for example Bacillus cereus, cause two types of food poisoning: diarrhoeal (heat-labile toxin) and emetic (heat-stable toxin). (Aidoo, 2011) The surface of ‘paper’ banknotes is not smooth, but irregular, and can harbour many different types of microorganisms.The two main factors that determine the occurrence of bacteria on currency are (i) the material that the banknotes are made from and (ii) the age of the banknote. Bacteria have enormous capabilities to allow them to su rvive in adverse conditions. Two of the most important strategies for survival are their ability to adhere to surfaces and the ability to form biofilms (multicellular aggregates). Members of some genera, such as Bacillus, may form spores and can survive attached to banknotes for many years. Formation of a biofilm or a spore is controlled by genetic activity of the bacterium.Bacterial cells on banknotes are measured by the number of colony-forming units (c. f. u. ) per cm2 of banknote. A banknote may contain up to 106c. f. u. cm–2, whilst a coin may have up to 103c. f. u. cm–2. Studies have shown that polymer-based banknotes often have a relatively low bacterial count compared with the cotton-based ‘paper’ banknotes. This may be due to various physicochemical parameters of polymers. For example, a negatively charged and hydrophilic synthetic polymer would adversely affect bacterial attachment. (Vriesekoop et. al. , 2010) Escherichia coli, also known as E. o li is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some types can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for food contamination. (CDC National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 2012) The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2, and by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine. (Hudault et al. , 2001).Fecal–oral transmission is the major route through which pathogenic strains of the bacterium cause disease. Cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them ideal indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. There is, however, a growing body of research that has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended period s outside of the host. (Ishii &Sadowsky, 2008) Escherichia coli (or E. coli) is the most prevalent infecting organism in the family of gram-negative bacteria known as enterobacteriaceae.E. coli is often referred to as the best or most-studied free-living organism. More than 700 serotypes of E. coli have been identified. The â€Å"O† and â€Å"H† antigens on the bacteria and their flagella distinguish the different serotypes. Indeed, some E. coli are beneficial, while some cause infections other than gastrointestinal infections, such as urinary tract infections. The E. coli that are responsible for the numerous reports of contaminated foods and beverages are those that produce Shiga toxin, so called because the toxin is virtually identical to that produced by Shigelladysenteria type 1. Eisenstein et al, 2000) Strains of E. coli that causes diarrhea in man †¢ Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) – causes diarrhea, but the molecular mechanisms of colonization and a etiology are different. EPEC lack fimbriae, ST and LT toxins, but they use an adhesin known as intimin to bind host intestinal cells. This virotype has an array of virulence factors that are similar to those found in Shigella, and may possess a shiga toxin. Adherence to the intestinal mucosa causes a rearrangement of actin in the host cell, causing significant deformation. EPEC cells are moderately invasive (i. . they enter host cells) and elicit an inflammatory response. A change in intestinal cell ultrastructure due to â€Å"attachment and effacement† is likely the prime cause of diarrhea in those afflicted with EPEC. (University of Wisconsin–Madison Department of Bacteriology, 2007) †¢ Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) – Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, or ETEC, is the name given to a group of E. coli that produce special toxins which stimulate the lining of the intestines causing them to secrete excessive fluid, thus producing diarrhea. (cdc. gov, 2004) à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Enteroinvasive E. oli (EIEC) – this infection causes a syndrome that is identical to Shigellosis, with profuse diarrhea and high fever. EIEC are highly invasive, and they utilize adhesin proteins to bind to and enter intestinal cells. They produce no toxins, but severely damage the intestinal wall through mechanical cell destruction. ( Lan et al, 2004). †¢ Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) – is a subgroup of diarrhoeagenic E. coli (DEC) that during the past decade has received increasing attention as a cause of watery diarrhea, which is often persistent. EAEC have been isolated from children and adults worldwide.As well as sporadic cases, outbreaks of EAEC-caused diarrhea have been described. (sgmjournals. org, 2003) †¢ Diffusely adherent E. coli (DAEC) – may cause disease in immunologically naive or malnourished children. Discrepancies among epidemiological studies could be explained by age-dependent susceptibility to diarrhea or by the use of a n inappropriate detection method such as DNA probing. The current prospective case-control study was done to determine the role of DAEC strains as a cause of acute diarrhea in northeastern Brazil, where childhood diarrhea is endemic. ( M. M. Levine. 1990) †¢ Shiga toxin-producing E. oli (STEC) – Some strains of E. coli produce a toxin called Shiga toxin that causes diarrhea and can lead to severe illness. These Shiga toxin-producing E. coli are sometimes called STEC (pronounced â€Å"S-TECK). STEC can be spread from cattle and other animals to people through raw or undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, or through contact with an infected animal. People can also get infected by consuming contaminated water, raw produce or unpasteurized juice or cider. Foods can become contaminated with bacteria from manure in the field or from raw beef or raw beef juices in the kitchen.People with STEC who do not wash hands well after a bowel movement can spread it to others. (kingcounty . gov, 2005) The genera Escherichia and Salmonella diverged around 102 million years ago, which coincides with the divergence of their hosts: the former being found in mammals and the latter in birds and reptiles. This was followed by a split of the escherichian ancestor into five species (E. albertii, E. coli, E. fergusonii, E. hermannii and E. vulneris. ) The last E. coli ancestor split between 20 and 30 million years ago. ( Lecointre et al. 2007) In 1885, a German pediatrician, Theodor Escherich, first discovered this species isolated from the feces of newborns and called it Bacterium coli commune due to the fact it is found in the colon and early classifications of Prokaryotes placed these in a handful of genera based on their shape and motility (at that time Ernst Haeckel's classification of Bacteria in the kingdom Monera was in place). Bacterium coli was the type species of the now invalid genus Bacterium when it was revealed that the former type species (â€Å"Bacterium tril oculare†) was missing.Following a revision of Bacteria it was reclassified as Bacillus coli by Migula in 1895 and later reclassified in the newly created genus Escherichia, named after its original discoverer. ( Castellani and Chalmers, 2009) The genus belongs in a group of bacteria informally known as â€Å"coliforms†, and is a member of the Enterobacteriaceae family (â€Å"the enterics†) of the Gammaproteobacteria. (Garrity, 2005) Escherichia coli encompass an enormous population of bacteria that exhibit a very high degree of both genetic and phenotypic diversity. Genome sequencing of a large number of isolates of E. oli and related bacteria shows that a taxonomic reclassification would be desirable. However, this has not been done, largely due to its medical importance and E. coli remains one of the most diverse bacterial species: only 20% of the genome is common to all strains. (Lukjancenko et. al. , 2010) In fact, from the evolutionary point of view, the mem bers of genus Shigella (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, S. sonnei) should be classified as E. coli strains, a phenomenon termed taxa in disguise. Similarly, other strains of E. coli (e. g. he K-12 strain commonly used in recombinant DNA work) are sufficiently different that they would merit reclassification. (Lan; Reeves, 2002) A strain is a sub-group within the species that has unique characteristics that distinguish it from other strains. These differences are often detectable only at the molecular level; however, they may result in changes to the physiology or lifecycle of the bacterium. For example, a strain may gain pathogenic capacity, the ability to use a unique carbon source, the ability to take upon a particularecological niche or the ability to resist antimicrobial agents. Different strains of E. oli are often host-specific, making it possible to determine the source of fecal contamination in environmental samples. For example, knowing which E. coli strains are pre sent in a water sample allows researchers to make assumptions about whether the contamination originated from a human, another mammal or a bird. (Feng et. al. , 2002) The bacteria normally adhere to the mucus or the epithelium on the wall of the intestines, and a single strain can last for months or years. E. coli is one of the most studied and best understood organism, but the organism's role and how it colonizes isn't very well understood.Freter's Nutrient-Niche theory best describes E. coli's role: The ecological functions of E. coli depend on the nutrient availability within the intestines of the host organism. Since there are so many different nutrients that can be found within the intestines, it is said that they contain a balanced ecosystem because there are so many different nutrient-defined functions where the E. coli colonize. This is dependent on the preferred nutrient for that particular population occupying the niche. E. coli can also be found outside of the body in fae cally-contaminated environments such as water or mud. (bioweb. wlax. edu, 2008) The optimal growth of E. coli occurs at 37 degrees Celsius but some laboratory strains can multiply at temperatures of up to 49 degrees C. Growth can be driven by aerobic or anaerobic respiration. (answers. ask. com, 2010) As E. coli is part of the common micro? ora in the large intestine, it is accustomed to a pH of 7-8. As glucose is absorbed in the small intestine, the E. coli would be used to low concentrations. However, as glucose is its energy source, if excess glucose were available for consumption, it would be expected that the E. coli would utilise it and grow at a faster rate.Salt (NaCl) is absorbed in the colon, so the amount of salt that the E. coli is exposed to depends on how much salt is consumed by the host organism. However, because of the mechanism of osmosis, extremely high levels as well as complete absence of salt could be lethal to E. coli bacteria. (APUA, 2007 How Antibiotics Work – the Mechanism of Action , Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics,) You get an E. coli infection by coming into contact with the feces of humans or animals. This can happen when you drink water or eat food that has been contaminated by feces. Healthwise, 2011) E. coli infection can cause human illness when E. coli is ingested through various modes of transmission, including through food and water sources, animal-to-human contact, and person-to-person contact. (Clark, 2012) And according to the (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) CDC, the transmission of these bacteria to humans may occur in the following manner: †¢Meat, such as beef from cows, may become contaminated when organisms are accidently mixed in with beef, especially when it is ground. Meat contaminated with E. coli does not smell and looks normal.It is important to thoroughly cook the beef. †¢Infection may occur after swimming in or drinking water that has been contaminated with E. coli. â € ¢Person-to-person contact in families and in child-care and other institutional-care centers are also places where the transmission of the bacteria can occur. However, the CDC also indicates the way E. coli is transmitted may change over time. (medicalcenter. osu. edu, 2006) To help avoid food poisoning and prevent infection, handle food safely. Cook meat well, wash fruits and vegetables before eating or cooking them, and avoid unpasteurized milk and juices.You can also get the infection by swallowing water in a swimming pool contaminated with human waste. (nlm. nih. gov, 2012) Pathogenic Escherichia coli, or E. coli, is believed to mostly live in the intestines of cattle. Certain serotypes of E. coli have also been found in the intestines of chickens, sheep, and pigs. (Clark, 2012) E. coli in food E. coli can get into meat during processing. If the infected meat is not cooked to 160 °F (71 °C), the bacteria can survive and infect you when you eat the meat. This is the most common way people become infected with E. coli.Any food that has been in contact with raw meat can also become infected. Other foods that can be infected with E. coli include: Raw milk or dairy products. Bacteria can spread from a cow's udders to its milk. Check the labels on dairy products to make sure they contain the word â€Å"pasteurized. † This means the food has been heated to destroy bacteria. Raw fruits and vegetables, such as lettuce, alfalfa sprouts, or unpasteurized apple cider or other unpasteurized juices that have come in contact with infected animal feces. E. coli in water Human or animal feces infected with E. oli sometimes get into lakes, pools, and water supplies. People can become infected when a contaminated city or town water supply has not been properly treated with chlorine or when people accidentally swallow contaminated water while swimming in a lake, pool, or irrigation canal. E. coli from person-to-person contact The bacteria can also spread from o ne person to another, usually when an infected person does not wash his or her hands well after a bowel movement. E. coli can spread from an infected person's hands to other people or to objects. Person-to-person transmission of E. oli occurs through a fecal-oral route, and is particularly common among infants and young children due to their unrefined hygienic practices. Person-to-person transmission of E. coli has also been known to occur between infected individuals and their caregivers, and between infected handlers of certain objects. (WebMD, 2010) In a study entitled â€Å"Microbial Contamination in 20-Peso Banknotes in Monterrey, Mexico†, the banknotes came from various sources, including banks, toll booths, convenience stores, restaurants, cafeterias, and yogurt stores, among others.Samples were randomly obtained and banknotes were placed in a sterile polyethylene bag. The bag was sealed and the sample was taken to the laboratory. All currency banknotes were in good ph ysical condition. Each banknote was placed in 5-mL sterile saline for 24 hours. A sterile, cotton-tipped swab was briefly introduced in the saline and the swab was seeded with a portion of the saline homogenized in blood agar plates and incubated for 48 hours at 37 °C in aerobic conditions. Plates were then examined for bacterial growth and the colonies underwent Gram stain.Gram-negative colonies were grown on Eosin methylene blue agar plates and identified with the Crystal Identification System (Becton Dickinson). Gram-positive cocci were grown on azide agar plates and identified by conventional biochemical tests. Identification of yeasts was performed with CHROMagar Candida (Becton Dickinson). Of the 70 currency banknotes on which bacteriological analysis was conducted, 48 (69%) were found to be contaminated with several microbial species (Table 1).Sixteen species isolates were obtained from the banknotes: 14 bacterial species (four [23%] Gram positive and 10 [63%] Gram negative ) and two (13%) yeast species. The most prevalent species observed was Candida kruseii (19 banknotes, 27%) followed by Burkholderiacepacia (nine banknotes, 13%). Of the 70 banknotes included, 22 (31%) showed no growth. Four bills (5. 7%) yielded bacteria considered pathogenic to healthy hosts and the other 44 contaminated bills (63%) yielded bacteria considered potentially pathogenic to hospitalized or immunocompromised hosts.Additionally, 11 bills showed more than one microbial species. Pope and co-authors analyzed 68 $1 bills collected from a school and a grocery store and found that five (7%) were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, 59 (87%) were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens, and just four (6%) were free of bacteria (Pope et al. , 2002). Unlike the study by Pope and co-authors, in our study 31% of the banknotes were negative. Our results are similar to a previous publication (Abrams; Waterman, 1972), in which 70% of banknotes were contaminated with bacteria.Of the se banknotes, 60% contained pathogens, including S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa. Medical personnel seem to play an important role in contamination of paper currency, since it has been reported that 13% of coins and 42% of currency collected from laboratory personnel were contaminated with S. aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella sp. , and Proteus mirabilis (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). Additionally, the culture of 100 banknotes and 102 coins collected from medical personnel showed that 3% of coins and 11% of banknotes were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens (KhinNwe et al. 1989). In our study, we did not include banknotes collected in any hospital, but banknotes collected near hospital facilities were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens such as B. cepacia and A. baumannii. Uneke and Ogbu assessed the potential of Nigerian currency notes to act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic parasites and bacteria. Currency notes obtained from four major cities in Nigeria were evaluated according to standard techniques. Fifty-four (21. 6 percent [95 percent CI: 16. 50-26. 0]) of the first batch of 250 notes, which underwent parasitological analysis, were contaminated with enteric parasites; 133 (53. 2 percent [95 percent CI: 47. 02-59. 39]) of the second batch of 250 notes, which underwent bacteriological analysis, were found to be contaminated with bacteria. Parasites that were isolated from the notes included Ascarislumbricoides (8. 0 percent), Enterobiusvermicularis (6. 8 percent), Trichuristrichiura (2. 8 percent), and Taenia species (4. 0 percent). Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21. percent), Staphylococcus species (12. 8 percent), Escherichia coli (13. 2 percent), and Bacillus species (5. 6 percent). Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacterial contamination were both significantly (p ; . 05) more pervasive (30. 6 percent and 73. 8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean a nd mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p ; . 05).Parasite contamination and bacteria contamination were both most frequent in notes obtained from butchers and beggars. These results suggest that currency notes may be contaminated, especially with bacteria and enteric parasites, and may serve as sources of infection. The possibility that currency notes might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in the 1970s (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide.It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency, with lower-denomination notes receiving the most handling because they are exchanged many times (Gadsby, 1998). Although paper cu rrency is made to take abuse (up to 4,000 folds in each direction) in most parts of the world, including in Nigeria (where paper currency is a rugged mix of 75 percent cotton and 25 percentlinen), it lasts less than a few years in circulation (Gadsby, 1998).The average U. S. dollar, for instance-like most currency notes worldwide-lasts a mere 18 months (Gadsby). Paper currency also provides a large surface area as a breeding ground for pathogens (Podhajny, 2004). Oddly, publications regarding the degree to which paper money is contaminated with bacteria are few and far between, as the authors found when they conducted a Medline search in December 2005 (Abrams; Waterman, 1972; El-Dars; Hassan, 2005; Goktas;Oktay, 1992; Jiang ; Doyle, 1999; Khin et al. 1989; Michaels, 2002; Pope et al. , 2002; Singh et al. , 2002; Xu et al. , 2005). Furthermore, the search found no documented study of the parasitological status of currency notes (as of December 2005). Scientific information on the con tamination of money by microbial agents is also lacking in most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This dearth of information may have contributed to the absence of public health policies or legislation on currency usage, handling, and circulation in many parts of Africa.Although the studies done in the United States and Australia have had no major impact on policies or legislation on currency handling and circulation in those countries, they have fostered a higher level of public awareness about the potential for currency contamination by microorganisms (Dow Jones News, 1998; FSA, 2000; Michaels; Jiang ; Doyle; Pope et al. ). In the United States, a whole division of the Department of Treasury deals with what is termed â€Å"mutilated currency,† and the department Web site boasts many examples of beleaguered, burned, buried, water-damaged money (Siddique, 2003).Isolation of various bacterial contaminants from the currency notes was performed via s tandard techniques described previously (Gilchrist, 1993; Singh et al. , 2002). Briefly, a sterile, cotton-tipped swab moistened with sterile physiological saline was used to swab both sides of the currency note. The swabs were directly inoculated on blood agar and MacConkey agar. The pairs of inoculated media were incubated aerobically at 35-37 °C for 24 hours and then examined for bacterial growth according to standard protocol described previously (Cheesbrough, 2000).The authors isolated bacteria by assessing colony characteristics and Gram reaction, and by conducting catalase and coagulase tests; hemolysis, sugar fermentation, and other biochemical tests, including tests for indole production, citrate utilization, and urase activity; triple sugar iron (TSI) agar tests (for glucose, sucrose, and lactose fermentation); gas and hydrogen sulfide production tests; and oxidase tests, according to protocols described previously (Cheesbrough). Bacteria were identified but were not qua ntified.Microbial contaminants can be transmitted directly by hand-to-hand contact or indirectly via food or inanimate objects like banknotes and doorknobs or other objects that come into contact with multiple human hands. Banknotes may be contaminated during storage and exchange, with lower-denomination banknotes receiving the most handling and therefore more contamination (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). In general, a greater number of bacteria have been reported on banknotes than on coins. Banknotes are an excellent transport medium for different types of microorganisms because they are commonly passed among individuals.Thus, handling money may be a route for transmission of infections (Xu et al. , 2005). We analyzed a sample of 70 20peso bills to isolate and identify bacteria or yeast that may be present on the surface of these banknotes. A recent study that included 1,280 banknotes from 10 countries, including Mexico, reported that pathogens could only be isolated after enrichment and their mere presence did not appear to be alarming (Vriesekoop et al. , 2010). The authors discussed that the presence of bacteria on banknotes is influenced by the material used for the banknotes (polymer based vs. otton based) and the age of the banknotes. They stated that the average number of bacteria encountered on the polymer banknotes was approximately 25% of that found on cotton-based banknotes (Vriesekoop et al. , 2010). That study showed a lower percentage of contamination in Mexican banknotes in comparison to banknotes from China, the U. S. , the UK, and the Netherlands, among others. We analyzed only polymer-based banknotes in good condition, but the presence of contamination was detected in most banknotes analyzed without any enrichment procedure.In that study, the only contaminations detected in Mexican banknotes were E. coli, S. aureus, and a low percentage of Bacillus cereus, which were interpreted as an indicator of poor hygiene, background microorganism, and the ab ility of spore-forming bacteria to persist on banknotes, respectively. In our study, we detected S. aureus and Bacillus spp. but we did not detect E. coli. It is important to point out that the 10-country study included currencies obtained only from food outlets and for this reason the results from that study and ours cannot strictly be compared. Source: Microbial Contamination in 20-Peso Banknotes in Monterrey, Mexico Rocha-Gamez, Judith; Tejeda-Villarreal, Paula Nelly, QCB; Macias-Cardenas, Patricia; Canizales-Oviedo, Jorge; Garza-Gonzalez, Elvira; et al. Journal of Environmental Health 75. 2 (Sep 2012): 20-3. ) In another study, entitled â€Å"Potential for Parasite and Bacterial Transmission by Paper Currency in Nigeria†, Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21. 6 percent), Staphylococcus species (12. 8 percent), Escherichia coli (13. 2 percent), and Bacillus species (5. 6 percent).Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacteri al contamination were both significantly (p ; . 05) more pervasive (30. 6 percent and 73. 8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean and mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p ; . 05). Personal hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended. Microbial contaminants may be transmitted either directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects.These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels. (Cooper, 1991). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide. It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency , with lower-denomination notes receiving the most handling because they are exchanged many times (Gadsby, 1998).Bacteriological analysis indicated that 133 (53. 2 percent, [95 percent CI: 47. 02-57. 39]) of the second batch of 250 notes were contaminated with bacteria: 37 (52. 9 percent) of the 70 clean notes and 96 (73. 8 percent) of the 130 dirty/mutilated notes. Neither parasite ova nor bacteria were found on the mint notes. Contamination was related to denomination of currency. Contamination with bacteria was most prevalent among the N5 notes (62. 2 percent) and least prevalent among the N500 notes (32. 0 percent). Contamination was also related to the physical condition of the currency.The dirty/mutilated notes also had the highest prevalence of bacterial contamination (73. 8 percent). Among the clean notes, 52. 9 percent were contaminated with bacteria. Chi-square analysis indicated a statistically significant association between bacterial contamination and currency condition (? ^sup 2^ = 79. 030, df = 2, p;. 05). In the study reported here, a random approach was adopted for currency sampling; whatever money was provided was collected. The implication is that the majority of the people are exposed to dirty notes.In Nigeria, poor-currency-handling culture is widespread, and there is indiscriminate abuse of currency notes. A great majority of the populace does not carry money in wallets, and squeezing of currency notes is a common occurrence. Women, especially among the unenlightened, often place money underneath their brassieres, while men place theirs in their socks. These activities not only enhance currency contamination but may also increase the risk of infection from contaminated notes. The situation is further compounded by the inability of the Nigerian government to consistently withdraw old, worn-out, and mutilated notes from circulation.The presence of damaged currency notes and the failure to consistently withdraw them from circulation are comm on phenomena in many parts of Africa and Asia (Gadsby, 1998; Podhajny, 2004). The persistence of damaged or terribly mutilated notes in active circulation (some so damaged that they can no longer be stuck together) could elevate their contributory role in transmission of some pathogens, thereby constituting potential public health hazard. ( Source: Uneke, C. and Ogbu, O. Potential for parasite and bacteria transmission by paper currency in Nigeria. J Environ Health, 69 (2007) 54–60. (1)) CHAPTER 3RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to determine the prevalence of E. coli contamination on Philippine Peso bill on Public Utility jeepney (PUJ), specifically on: twenty (20), fifty (50), one hundred (100) pesos. Subjects of the study The subject of the study is the fifteen (15) Public Utility Jeepney drivers routing Jaro-CPU and City Proper bound. On each driver, three (3) Philippine Peso bill samples with amounts: 20, 50 and 100 are to b e collected. Data Gathering 45 peso bills are to be used as sample and will be collected on the month of March 2013 at around 10:00 – 11:00 in the morning.The samples will be taken randomly from 15 Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) of Jaro – Cpu Route. In each jeepney, three(3) different values: 20, 50, and 100 Php are to be taken and tested, so the total number of samples is 45. The samples collected will be placed in a sealable plastic container, so as to preserve the contaminants on the peso bill. The paper bill will be brought immediately to Central Philippine University, particularly at the Medical Laboratory Science Department Research Lab for confirmatory testing of E. coli. Preparation of Laboratory Materials Needed The following are needed to conduct our study: . ) Sterile cotton swab – will be used in obtaining the possible contaminant on the surface of the paper bill. b. )Eosin Methylene Blue Agar – will be used in the confirmatory test for the pres ence of E. coli The following are the apparatus needed for our study: a. )Petri Dish b. )Alcohol Lamp c. )Oven All of the enumerated materials above will be borrowed from the stockroom of Medical Laboratory Science Department. A letter of permission was given to the stockroom coordinator for authorized use of the materials stated above. Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMB) Procedure: 1.Using a sterile cotton swab, swab on the surface of the peso bill then streak it onto an EMB agar. 2. Incubate plates at 35oC for twenty-four(24) hours. 3. After 24 hours, observe the plate as follows: The colonies developing on EMB agar plates may be divides as: Typical – nucleated with or without metallic sheen Atypical – opaque, pink mucoid, non-nucleated Negative – no growth or clear watery, or clear colonies Interpretation of Data Philippine peso paper bill that will give a negative reaction on the EMB agar plate is considered not contaminated with E. coli and is safe for everyday domestic use.There will be no growth or clear watery or clear colonies. On the other hand, water sample that yielded a positive result in E. coli analysis is considered to be contaminated with E. coli bacteria and is not safe. There would be a typical nucleated with or without metallic sheen. Central Philippine University Jaro, Iloilo City College of Arts and Sciences __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ Sir/Madam, We, the 3rd yearBachelor in Medical Laboratory Science students of Central Philippine University who are currently enrolled in the subject Research is conducting a study entitled Prevalence of E. oli in Philippine Peso Bill. This is a requirement for the completion of the subject in Research 1. In line withthis, we are respectfully requesting you to be one of the respondents of our study by exchanging such peso bills: 20, 50 and 100 respectively that has been collected as commuter’s fare. We need this data for the completion of this study. Your positive response to this request is highly appreciated. Thank you and God bless. Respectfully yours, JUSTINE GRACE JIMENEA ISAAC JAMES LEDESMA MAJA HANNAH LOU LOJA ROBERTO MANALO Jr. JIRAH PEDROSA Researchers Noted by: DR. MA. CORAZON PORRAS Research Adviser BibliographyAbel, Andrew;  Bernanke, Ben  (2005). â€Å"7†. Macroeconomics(5th ed. ). Pearson. pp. 266–269. ISBN  0-201-32789-9. Ahmed, S. U. , S. Parveen, T. Nasreen and B. Feroza, 2010. Evaluation of The Microbial Contamination of Bangladesh Paer Currency Notes (Taka) in Circulation. Advances in Biological Res. , 4 (5):266-271. Aidoo, Kofi (2011). Microbiology Today Answers. ask. com/Health/Diseases/how_does_e_coli_grow, 2010 Bernstein, Peter,  A Primer on Money and Banking, and Gold, Wiley, 2008 edition, pp29-39 Bhat, B. , S. Bhat, K. Asawa and A. Agarwal, 2010. An assessment of oral health risk associated with handling of currency notes. Int. J.Dntal Clinics, 2(3): 14-16. Bioweb. uw lax. edu/bio203/s2008/moder_just/habitat. htm, 2008 Boyle, David  (2006). The Little Money Book. 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The Gammaproteobacteria. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2B  (2nd ed. ). New York: Springer. pp. 1108.ISBN  978-0-387-24144-9. British Library no. GBA561951. Geschickter, J. â€Å"Making Money. †Ã‚  National Geographic World,  November 2005, pp. 30-33. Goetzmann, William N. ; K. Geert Rouwenhorst (1 August 2005). The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets. Oxford University Press. p. 94. ISBN  978-0-19-517571-4. â€Å"The Mongols adopted the Jin and Song practice of issuing paper money, and the earliest European account of paper money is the detailed description given by Marco Polo, who claimed to have served at the court of the Yuan dynasty rulers. Greco T. H. Money: Understanding and Creating Alternatives to Legal Tender, White River Junction, Vt: Chelsea Green Publishing (2001). ISBN 1-890132-37-3 Headrick , Daniel R. (1 April 2009). Technology: A World History. Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN  978-0-19-988759-0. 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Costco Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Costco - Case Study Example The model is appealing since it eventually fosters smaller prices draws in. the model addressers the fact that it is not only the Americans who requires bargains but even the potential classes. The model applies to every levels and individual, and does not only benefit those who would purchase at the membership warehouse. For instance, the prominent personnel wearing the Costco-bought products trigger an impression on the public on how the enterprise is progressing continually. Alternatively, Costco has manifested a steady progress in the recent years since the year 2000 according to the fiscal reports. The fundamental components of the Costco’s strategy entails low prices, restricted selection and a shopping environment targeted at obtaining the treasure. The enormously reduced-price strategy incorporates the mark-up restricted at fourteen percent and Kirkland, which is one of the Costco brands set at outdoing the national produce. The product choosing is restricted to about four thousand items within the broader variety of classifications (Thompson, 2008). Nevertheless, the business strives at increasing the number of options through the incorporation of subsidiary businesses. Despite all the efforts Costco applies, other clients might opt to purchase smaller quantities of the enterprise products. However, the business treats such losses as ‘clever’ loses in sales since they tend to intelligently out-do the business targets in limited perspectives. The hunt of treasure in merchandising includes a continually alternating choosing of about one thousand lavishness brands available for consumers. The luxury brands are meant to attract the shopkeepers and lead them into spending beyond their initial budgets and intentions through the provision of appealing deals. Costco attains effective treasure hunt through obtaining purchases from grey markets, for instance, the wholesalers or the perplexed retailers instead of the original producers. Theref ore, the question on the effectiveness of the strategy can receive  feedback that the feedback that the strategy is suitable (Thompson, 2008). I think Jim Sinegal is an effective CEO of the Costco Company. Jim is a level five leader who has led the company into a series of success in the United States and the world at large. The CEO has enabled the business to achieve a significant reputation in the global scope. Costco is the forth-best company in United States and the sixth best in the world. No company can rank such highly with poor management and leadership. Jim Sinegal has achieved this splendid performance through promoting favorable environments to the company workers and enhancing the company advertisement activities (Thompson, 2008). The CEO hold the record of visiting twelve warehouses in one day and the total number of the stores he physically attends to in a day ranges from eight to ten. Thus, in spite of Jim being ranked amongst the best CEOs, he considers the origin of the company’s wealth. The enterprise is performing well fiscally according to the financial information provided in the table and the report. The traditional perspective may perceive some numbers in the table to be good-looking but a critical understanding should prevail that the Costco is not a traditional corporation. The company’

Syrian Government Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Syrian Government - Research Paper Example It states that Syria is an integral part of the Arab homeland and that all the people of the country have all the legislative power. The president and the members of parliament are elected by the people through their votes. However it appears that the enforcement of these principles is not ensured by the government since many years. Branches of the Government The structure of the Syrian government consists of the executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches. The Executive Branch The president is the head of the state and the chief officer of the government. He is elected by the people through referendum for a term of seven years. The constitution required that the president be of no less than 34 years of age and a Muslim. The constitution gives right to the president to appoint two vice-presidents, to name the prime minister and to dismiss him, other deputy minister, the members of the Cabinet and the military officers. Dr. Bashar al-Assad is currently serving as the preside nt (Britannica). The Legislative Branch The legislative branch is called Majlis-al-Shaab or the People’s Assembly. It is a 250-member unicameral body. The members are elected by the people through elections for a term of four years. People’s Assembly is represented by the members of different political parties. However, the majority of the seats are reserved or the National Progressive Front (NPF) which consist of the members of the Baath Party (Cafe Syria). The Council nominates a candidate for the presidential elections, discussion of economic matters and approval of the budget and the government policies. It also enacts the laws; however, initiation of law is not covered under its functions. The Judicial Branch The judicial system of Syria consists of courts at three levels: Courts of first instance (which comprises of magistrate and peace courts), courts of appeal (there is one court of appeal per province like a High Court), and the Constitutional courts which is the highest tribunal authority. The judicial system itself has the elements of Islamic, ottoman and the French Laws. The Supreme Constitutional Court is the head of the judicial system. It’s members consist of a chief justice and a bench of four different judges who all are appointed by the president for a period of four years (Mongabay). Problems with the Syrian Political System Although the constitution of Syria says that its people have every right to elect and appoint the president in general elections, the president is actually imposed through the unopposed popular referenda. The passing of presidential title by virtue of hereditary entitlement is quite apparent although the constitution says the government is of the republic form. And many attempts are made by the government to remove the opposing forces and continue to pass the title in this way. For example, in order to make Bashar (Hafiz al-Assad’s son), eligible for nomination in the presidential election, th e minimum age restriction was changed from 40 to 34 in 2000. Moreover the people cannot change the government. Most of the power resides with the president and he has the power to dissolve the legislature as well. The People’s Assembly may criticize the government’s policy or express its views on the economic matters, but it cannot initiate the law. The degree of public accountability is minimum and the government does not tolerate any political opposition (Mongabay). Syrian and U.S Political Systems Compared In this section

THe physics of the ear Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

THe physics of the ear - Essay Example The ear also plays a role in maintaining physical stability and balance of the body. The size of the outer ear differs considerably among mammals—from the large floppy ears of the hare to the smaller ones for humans—though there is not much difference in its internal functioning across species. The size of the ear canal is determined by the skin, cartilage and bone formation at this location. Since there is no growth of cartilage in adulthood, the size of the ear canal remains unchanged. However, the outer ear grows in size through adulthood. Ferrario VF. Sforza C. et al., (19(4):226-33, 1999.) calculated the length of the left exterior ear from apex to the lowest part with a transparent ruler; the result (in mms) as well as the patients age, were noted. The results established that as humans grew older the outer ear correspondingly increased in size. The outer ear (pinna or auricle) is the part visible to us. Its main function is to collect sound waves and filter them; so the larger it is, it collects more sound waves and focuses them in the right direction. However, this part is not vital to hearing. Besides, the pinna plays no role in the ear’s function of providing the sense of balance. The outer ear also consists of the ear canal, where wax is produced. Earwax protects the canal by means of the chemicals it contains that keep infections at bay, and also by acting as a barrier to collect dirt, which keeps the ear canal clean. (3 D Ear-Website) The middle ear receives sound waves that move through the ear canal to reach it. The middle ear converts sound waves into vibrations delivered to the inner ear. It does this through the eardrum (tympanum) which is a thin piece of skin stretched tight. The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear and the ossicles, which are the three smallest and most delicately crafted bones in the body. The ossicles consist of the malleus (hammer), which is attached to the eardrum, the incus

David Lindsay-Abaire's Rabbit Hole Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

David Lindsay-Abaire's Rabbit Hole - Essay Example Even though Lindsay-Abaire foregrounds the intensity of Becca and Howie’s loss, he strongly puts forward the necessity to overcome their mourning in order to survive and appreciate life. Through the plot, the characterization, the setting and the theme, the audience perceives that Lindsay-Abaire encourages people not to let grief destroy their lives. The plot turns around the interaction between the main characters, but it especially points out the effects Danny’s tragic death has on his parents, Becca and Howie, and even on other members of the family. Killed in a tragic accident, Danny’s death causes much grief to the family and has a negative effect on the relationship between the members, especially between Becca and Howie. Even though both parents deeply suffer from the loss, each of them has a different way to express his/ her bereavement. The following statement informs: â€Å"With sly judiciousness, Lindsay-Abaire layers fragments from each segment of th eir years together into the story, letting us learn by indirection about the accident, the family's life before it, the couple's shattered condition now† (Feingold). In fact, it is through the characters’ interaction that the audience learns about the mourning and evaluates the impact the grief has on their everyday life. Becca is so involved with mourning the loss of her son that she cannot fully enjoy the fact that her sister Izzy is going to have a baby whereas she lost her child. Moreover, her relationship with her husband is even more estranged since they have stopped having sexual relations. Becca’s bereavement for her son does not even allow her to have sex because she will not let any moment of joy interfere with her grief. She even fails to feel some empathy for her mother, Nat, who also lost a son. She feels her pain is unique and cannot be compared to any other loss. Even though Howie is also suffering, he handles his mourning more decently. Lindsay-Ab aire chooses a very specific characterization which reveals the destruction that Becca and Howie’s grief causes to their relationship, and he advocates an imminent need for change. All the main characters in the play feel the impact of the mourning on themselves and on their relationships with the others. Becca used to be a very strong professional woman and a mother until the fatal accident that took her son rendered her psychologically vulnerable. Commenting about her, this author states â€Å"Becca is an enlightened woman whose coping mechanisms clearly are being tested to their limits. We learn she was successful in her former job but that motherhood redefined her as a person, leaving her now feeling rootless, purposeless and empty† (Rooney). She feels a deep grief that impacts everything in her life, including her relationship with her husband who is very caring and tries to dissimilate his loss by watching Danny’s videos. Despite his own bereavement, Howie finds the strength to console his wife and suggests a therapist to help her out. However, his sadness comes out during their arguments leading him to accuse Becca of attempting to erase any sign of Danny. Referring to the tension within the couple James MacKillop argues:

History J2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History J2 - Essay Example ense moment of Christianity suppression process came in the year 1635 as a result of the 1635 edicts which forbid the Japanese from any affiliation with foreigners especially the foreign missionaries. The Japanese people were forced to denounce Christianity through either reward or punishment. The rewards included a high political role in the society while the punishment was basically death and intense torture (Laver, 2011). The 1635 edict demanded for all incoming ships to be investigated for Christian priests before entering Japan. A reward was offered if any high ranking priest was located and presented to the authorities. Foreign ships which brought goods to Japan were investigated of any Christian influence. The Japanese citizens were forbidden from leaving or entering the country after staying in overseas for a long time. The Japanese authorities were thorough in their investigation of traces of Christianity. All these steps were focused towards the complete suppression of Chri stianity. Trade was immensely affected by the 1635 edicts. The Japanese natives were refrained from buying directly goods from foreign ships. Goods that originated from foreign ships were bought directly from Nagasaki where Chinese merchants operated their businesses. All the Japanese currencies brought by foreign ships were distributed to local traders in cities. Direct trade between the Japanese traders and foreigners ended in 1636 when the departure date for foreign ships was set on the 20th day of the 29th month. This day was set by the Japanese trade authority and included in the 1635 edict (Laver, 2011). The Japanese shoguns were affected by the 1635 edict as they were forbidden from leaving the country and interacting with the communities that were overseas. The Japanese shoguns that had travelled overseas were forbidden from entering the country as they were thought to have acquired foreign influence which was basically loyal to Christianity and practiced the missionaries’

Japanese history - The Meiji Restoration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Japanese history - The Meiji Restoration - Essay Example These Samurai were motivated by the current state of the country including threat of encroachment from foreigners and emergent domestic problems. They adopted the fukoku-kyohei slogan (â€Å"Wealthy country and strong arms†) and pursued after creating a nation-state that could stand equal among the Western powers. The new government, as deduced from the 1868 Charter Oath, sought to dismantle the aged feudal regime (Devine, 51). In mid-1870s, restoration leaders, acting under the Emperor’s name, faced such steep opposition in carrying out the restoration changes. SaigÃ…  Takamori lead the famous disgruntled samurai in rebelling against the government which were later, with great difficulty, repressed by the formed army and in 1880’s, peasants who had grown distrustful of the newly formed regiment, joined in the revolts bringing it to its peak. This turmoil was halfway dissolved by s call from a Rights movement that was gaining popularity although it was mainly influenced by liberal western ideas. They advocated the formation of a constitutionally-based government with deliberative assemblies (Devine, 54). In 1881, the government responded by issuing a statement that promised a constitution by year 1890 and in 1886, constitution formation started after the formation of a cabinet system in 1885. By year 1889, a constitution was promulgated to the people as a gift from Meiji Social and economic changes were concurrent with the political changes that were already taking place during this era. Agriculture was the primary drive for the economy of Japan (Schirokauer, Lurie, and Gay). However, the Meiji government was working towards industrialization and hence directed developments in communications, transportation and strategic industries. Railroads were built, telegraphs linking all the main cities and private sectors received government support thru funds and European-like banking system. They relied on and heavily promoted western technology and

Walt Disney or “Uncle Walt” Essay Example for Free

Walt Disney or â€Å"Uncle Walt† Essay Have you ever seen a movie or a cartoon that was produced by Disney? Of course you have! That is because there are so many movies and cartoons that are produced by Disney. However, Disney wasn’t as popular in the 1920’s as it is today. It all started with an average man. His name was Walter Elias Disney, or better known as Walt Disney. Walt Elias Disney was born in Chicago, Illinois, on the date of December 5, 1901. Later in his life he lied about his age and joined the American Red Cross at the age of 16. He soon went home and got a full scholarship to the Kansas City Art Institute. There he met a fellow animator Ubbe Iwerks. Then the two set up their own company. They made a series of animated shorts that were called â€Å"Newman’s Laugh-o-grams†, but the business failed. The two soon went to Hollywood and created a cartoon series that is about a little girl named Alice that has adventures in the woods. That too, went bankrupt. After that, his brother and he made another small company named Disney Brother’s Studios. When Walt and his brother (Roy) made Disney Brother’s Studios that was when they started to reel in the big money. Their first distributor was a woman from New York named Margaret Winkler. Disney’s Alice cartoons sold for 1500 dollars a short. The same price was for his Oswald cartoons. A few years later, Margaret Winkler and her husband stole the rights to Disney’s Oswald cartoons and every other cartoon they made, but Disney retaliated because he made one of his biggest cartoons after that which was Mickey Mouse. It was an instant sensation. Then in 1929, he made all of Mickey Mouse’s friends. They were Goofy, Pluto, Minnie, and Donald. This was one of his biggest hits. A few years later, Disney made the movie, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. It made an unimaginable 1.5 million dollars. It later won an Oscar. So went on Disney’s career. He produced many of the movies that we know today like, Finding Nemo, Monsters Inc., Peter Pan, and many more. Walt died on December 15, 1966. As you can see, Walt Elias Disney was very important to the 1920’s. He was very important because he created a new hobby that people could do. This means that he changed mass media and American culture. It made a very large significance to the future. Without Walt Disney, Disney Studios would not have been created. In the future Disney made many movies. Millions of Americans have seen and still watch Disney movies. I guess that I’m trying to say that without Disney, all the movies that we loved as children wouldn’t have existed if Walt didn’t make Disney. That’s how it affected the future. Walt Disney also affected American history. It gave Americans something to do or watch in their free time. Many movies that are widely known today wouldn’t have been made if it wasn’t for Walt Disney. So it affected American history because it changed mass media and he made many movies that are still loved today by millions of people around the world. So in the end, Walt Elias Disney was a very important man. He made a multi-billion dollar industry. It was amazing what he did. After all his work was stolen, he kept on trying and succeeded. He retaliated and made one of the biggest movie making companies in the history of America. It shows you that anything is possible in the land of opportunities.

Terrorism and Religion in Kenya

Terrorism and Religion in Kenya EXPLORATION OF THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN TERRORISM RELIGION AND THE IMPACT ON PEACE STABILITY IN KENYA 1. Introduction 1.1 Background to the Research The growing trends of terrorism in Africa, and in the region of Inter-Governmental Authority on Development [IGAD] in particular within which Kenya finds itself, have become a serious concern for security. Its impact on peace and economic development is significantly negative. Many lives have been lost, and fear and anxiety in the people is slowly creeping in. Kenya serves as an epitome of the phenomenon of terrorism taking place in the globe, and the IGAD region in particular. All these reasons necessitated the undertaking of this research at the micro level (i.e., Kenya). Through this study, the authors hope to present a complete grasp of the nature of terrorism and its development in Kenya, with a view to making contributions towards the knowledge of terrorism and addressing it. It is difficult to give a universally acceptable definition of terrorism. Because of its dependence on the historical contexts it appears, its definition is embedded in one’s political position and ideological or religiousviews. What one may call terrorism in one context another may consider it a legitimate action. This poses a challenge to term an actor a ‘terrorist’.Some governments, groups and individuals use terrorising activities for different purposes. For these reasons, here the term ‘terrorism’ rather than ‘terrorist’ is preferred. Terrorism is, therefore, a set of premeditated actions or strategies adopted by non-state (groups or individuals) or state actors against ordinary and targeted notable people to further certain political, social, or religious purposes (Sandler, 2011; Ramsbotham, Woodhouse and Miall, 2011). Without prejudice to state and government terrorist activities existing in some non-democratic countries, this research will focus more on the violent activities perpetrated by the non-state actors. The actors in terrorism use strategies intended to causeextreme anxiety and fear in a wider population, who – theactors hope – wouldin turn pressurize their governments into acceding to the perpetrator/s’ demands. We consider ‘terrorist act’ any form of action that intentionally force people into submission to the will and wish of the actor under the pain of physical and psychological harm (including destruction of life and property). Terrorist activities are not recent phenomenon, although the magnitude of its violence and casualties of our time is impressive. Today, at the dawn of the 21st century, the world experiences the era of the politico-religious wave terrorism. Putting aside the harrowing and terrorizing local experiences of terrorist activities in individual countries throughout the world (e.g., pogroms, criminal activities of groups, of drag cartels and gangs, and state sponsored activities in some countries), the major â€Å"waves of terrorism†(Rapoport, 2008) indicate the growing trends of terrorism globally. Today’s form of terrorism has grown more complicated and transnational, which the IGAD region and Kenya in particular experiences. The experience of Africa of the politico-religious terrorism is recent and growing phenomenon. It is continuing in some countries and emerging in other countries of the Continent. In Northern Africa, it has been off and on: Algeria Mali, Niger and Mauritania have been struggling with Al Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb since 2001, with another break away branch â€Å"Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa† (MOJWA) in mid-2011 led by a black African, perhaps in reaction to Algerian Arab domination. It remains an al Qaida inspired group. Egypt has a long experience of on-and-off attacks. Somalia in Eastern Africa has been a place for the new breed of terrorism, Al Shabab with links to Al Quida. The Boko Haram, a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist sect began in 2002 with one Mohammed Yusuf in Maiduguri, the capital of the north-eastern state of Borno, Nigeria, with a complex religious school that attracted young people from the country and its neighbours. The students came mainly fr om poor Muslim families. It has moved to a radical militant Islamist movement, a salafist jihadi group with the influence of Wahhabi creed, with expressed claim of commitment to the propagation of the teaching of Prophet and Jihad, and strict adherence to sharia law, and with vision of changingNigeria into an Islamic state. It is continuing with devastating activities in Nigeria, particularly since 2009,and now (in 2014) expanding even into northern Cameroon. The IGAD region of Africa is rife with terrorism perpetrated by the non-state actors.IGAD region comprises eight countries, namely Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda, with its headquarters in Djibouti City. It was founded in 1986 to address the serious sufferings and challenges caused by famine, natural disasters, and economic hardships in the Eastern Africa Region. Today, with its new organisational structure, the member countries cooperate in the areas of foodsecurity and environmental protection; promotion and maintenance of peace and security and humanitarian affairs; and economic cooperation and integration (IGAD, http://igad.int/). The region has an estimated population of 242,226,382 according to the July 2014 CIA’s The World Factbook, and suffers constant threat of terrorism, the experience of which is being deeply felt in Kenya Kenya’s population, according The World Factbook, is estimated to be 45,010,056.The Christians account for the majority of the population (82.5%), followed by Muslims (11.1%) according to the Population and Housing Census of 2009. In the IGAD region, Kenya it has been the host of the largest refugee population, although at the moment with the flow of South Sudanese refugees Ethiopia contains slightly more refugee population. Kenya has experienced terrorism by non-state actors since 1950s. The shifta activities in the northern Kenya, and the ensuing state actions were forms of terrorism. Today, Kenya suffers from both national and transnational acts of politico-religious terrorism. The country has been employing different mechanisms of addressing the problem of non-state form of terrorism, mainly focusing on military means but also in recent times through constitutional reforms to address the sources. These have not shown reduction in terrorism; the experience of nationalist form of terrorism is continuing; the politico-religious form of terrorism is rising. Globally, the period starting from the 2004 pick of terrorism incidents to 2008 showed a considerable decline in international terrorist attacks(Ramsbotham et al., 2011, p. 80). But the situations today in the Middle East, the Persian Gulf, northern Africa, and the IGAD regionare no consolation to us. It shows the exponential rise of terrorism in these parts of the regions of the world. The 2014 Global Peace Index Report concludes: â€Å"The world has become less peaceful every year since 2008† (p. 2). This indicates the importance of better understanding of the nature of the conflict and its trends to be able to face the challenge. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Kenya faces a more aggressive, dynamic and destructive form of terrorism with tactics causing a great physical, psychological, and economic damages to the society. The approaches that have been used so far appear to be ineffective. There is a need to assess the nature of terrorism and the mechanisms that have been applied in addressing it. 1.3 Purpose of the Study This research explores the nature of terrorism and mechanisms available in addressing it. 1.4 Objectives of the Study To determine the relationship between terrorism and religion To document trends in terrorism in Kenya To determine the effect of terrorism on peace and development To determine feasibility conditions of terrorism To determine mechanisms of combating terrorism 1.5 Research Questions What is the relationship between terrorism and religion? Are there trends in terrorism in Kenya? What effects does terrorism have on peace and development? What are the feasibility conditions of terrorism? What mechanisms are available in combating terrorism? 1.6 Theoretical Framework This research uses two complementary theories: theory of good governance and theory of strong state. (The assumptions of these theories will be added). 1.7 Justification of the Study To make contribution towards the knowledge of terrorism Offer comprehensive analysis on terrorism in Kenya for policy makers Offer recommendations relevant for the process of addressing the problem 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Understanding the Link between Religion and Terrorism In the literature, there seem to be two broad categories into which the scholars argue: those who consider religion as not being the cause of terrorism, but instead argue that the causes for violence are due to politics or societal problems (extreme poverty, hunger, etc.) (Jackson, 2007; Mamdani, 2002; Ehrlich Liu 2002; Frisch, 2005;Mousseau, 2002). The second category includes scholars who argue that religion is among the main driving forces of terror(Crenshaw, 2000; Pearce, 2005;Silberman, Higgins Dweck,2005;Cliteur, 2010; Rid, 2010; KruglanskiFishman, 2006; Horowitz, 2009). Both groups agree that that religion is not ‘the’ cause of terrorism. However, these authors have not investigated specific religious motivations involved in the terrorism. This research tries to examine more specifically the religious motivations provided by Islam that draws recruits in Kenya, so as to better understand and address the issue. 2.2 Feasibility conditions of Terrorism A number of factors breed terrorism. The most common factors cited in most of the literature include external support (Pillar, 2001; Campbell Flournoy, 2001), repressive governments (Regan, 2005;Bjoro, 2003; Netanyahu, 2001; Carson, 2005), extremist religious ideologies (CilliersSturman 2002;Moustapha, 2002), and socio-economic conditions among the Muslim populations (Campbell Flournoy, 2001; Pillar, 2001 ;Carson ,2005). 2.3 Impact of terrorism in Kenya Despite Kenya being a victim of repeated terrorist attacks, not much literature is available covering the impact the threat has had on the country in terms of peace and security. Some literature relevant to this research highlight the socioeconomic impacts of the threat (Lecey, 2004;Barkan Cooke, 2001; Muhula, 2007; Downing, 2006 ). This research to determine the extent to which terrorism has affected Kenya. 2.4 Combating Terrorism Some elements of an effective counterterrorism strategy relevant to this research, cited by various authors, are public diplomacy and information campaigns(Pillar, 2001); legislation; financial controls (Pillar, 2001;Thomas et al. 2004) and socioeconomic development (Lee, 2004;Campbell Flournoy, 2001); use of military force (Netanyahu, 2001;Juergensmeyer, 2001); and creation of a specialized judicial system for terrorism suspects (Hoffman and Morrison, 2000; Netanyahu, 2001; Shapiro Benedict, 2003). International collaboration is also another aspect that has been underscored (Ramsbotham et al., 2011). How much these will be effective in addressing Terrorism in Kenya will be discussed. 3. METHODOLOGY The research plan hopes to achieve the objectives through multiple answering of the research questions thereby coming up with answers that are social science empirical research knowledge. This knowledge will not only make a contribution to what is already known about the nature and dynamics of terrorism in Kenya, but also be valuable in terms of informing policy in Kenya as is synoptically described below. Research Site Areas of Eastern and Northern Kenya and also selected urban places of the country as a whole Population Adult men and women who are knowledgeable direct (experience based) or indirect (Secondary source based) about terrorist and terrorism in Kenya. Strategy One- off cross-sectional survey will be used. Specifically, because the research will be guided by questions and not hypotheses, descriptive rather than analytic cross-sectional survey will be employed in the collection of data from the sampled population. Thus the prime purpose will be to provide descriptive estimates of the purview of actors in terrorism, terror acts and terrorism. Sampling Due in part to opting to be guided by research questions rather than hypotheses, the probability sampling principle will be relaxed in large measure but not totally dispensed with because of the need to provide estimates of parameters of dynamics of terrorism in Kenya, taking into account Kenyas neighbours ( Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, Uganda). The Sample will be constructed from individuals well selected purposefully to meet quotas deemed to be important or salient to getting to know and understand terroristic phenomena what they mean, what they entail, what they imply, what they deny, and what to do about them solely in the interest of socio-economic development praxis in Kenya. Data Collection Procedures Quantitative and qualitative data will be collected from respondents through questionnaire, structured and unstructured interview and focus group discussions. Tentative Budget Budget lines Amount in USD Preparation and Development of Research tools 800 Training of Research Assistants 1,200 Field Research 4,500 Technical Assistance for Data Analysis 1,200 Report Writing 400 Validation Workshop 1,000 Printing Binding and Distribution 900 Logistics (Stationary, Communication, Internet) 1,500 Allowance for Lead researcher and Research Assistants 3,500 Grand Total 15,000 Bibligography Barkan, Joel D., and Jennifer G. Cooke.2001. U.S. Policy Towards Kenya in the Wake of September 11, Can Antiterrorist Imperatives be Reconciled with Enduring U.S. Foreign Policy Goals? Africa Center for Strategic Studies web page article on-line. http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/anotes_0112.pdf. Internet.Accessed December 2014. Bjorgo, Tore. 2003. 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